Chapter 2: Ideologies of the Individual
Learning Objectives
This chapter will give you a better understanding of ideology in political thought. In order to do so, we will consider classical and modern variants of liberalism, conservatism, and socialism by analyzing the ways in which these ideologies value equality and freedom. We will also attempt to define a conception of justice that aligns with each of these ideologies.
What is Justice?
This is one of the oldest questions in Western political philosophy and the central inquiry of Plato’s Republic. Pause here for a moment and consider this age-old question: What does justice mean to you? When are our actions just? This question is answered in numerous ways as Western philosophic tradition develops historically, from the ancient Greeks to 20th century liberal philosophers. What should be the most important political values that individuals, society, and the state adhere to? Ideologies are the beliefs and values that answer this question. Ideologies are not fact-based or objective statements but normative beliefs informed by basic assumptions about reality. To what degree are humans born with reason, born equal, and born free? Is private property necessary for individual freedom? When should the rights of the community override the right of an individual? These are examples of questions that are intended to guide you to first-order principles of your political beliefs, thus shaping your ideological commitments.
Briefly, we must bring some clarity to these concepts of equality and freedom, for there is no single definition that can encompass either. First, let’s consider three variations on the concept of equality: comprehensive equality, equal opportunity, and equality of outcomes. Comprehensive equality is a deeper philosophical concept that all human beings are, in the words of the Declaration of Independence, “created equal.” In other words, comprehensive equality suggests that humans are all equal in worth and dignity, that we have an innate and existential equality of being endowed with human life. Equal opportunity suggests that, despite differences in human achievement, a just world should provide a roughly equal starting point for all individuals regardless of who they are or where they come from. This concept can be applied to the law, and is codified in the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees that all persons are afforded equal protection under the laws. Importantly, the Constitution does not guarantee that everyone be treated equally. In fact, government can and does legally discriminate all the time—age, for example, can be the basis of discrimination (those under 16 cannot legally drive a car; those under a certain age are not eligible for Social Security, etc). But the government cannot legally discriminate against similarly situated persons and must afford everyone equal protection under the laws. Equality of outcomes suggests that there is a shared benefit