1.3 Etiology of childhood adversity and maltreatment
1.3 Etiology of childhood adversity and maltreatment
Etiology or aetiology refers to a branch of knowledge concerned with causes – typically of social, psychological and medical phenomenon.
There is not any single fact which causes child abuse. Abuse usually occurs in families where there is a combination of risk factors. Any effort to identify definitive causes of child abuse and neglect is complicated by the interrelatedness of factors. One model that has been used to demonstrate how factors at multiple levels intersect to increase the likelihood of child abuse and neglect is Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ‘developmental-ecological’ model (Horton, 2003; Irenyi, Bromfield, Beyer, & Higgins, 2006).
The developmental-ecological model has four levels:
- cultural beliefs and values (macrosystem)
- neighbourhood and community settings (exosystem)
- family environment (microsystem)
- the individual’s own characteristics and developmental stage
International research has identified many risk factors for child abuse and neglect. It is beyond the scope of this book to provide detailed evidence of all of these risk factors or to discuss the extent to which specific risk factors relate to different forms of maltreatment. However, some of the commonly cited risk factors for child maltreatment, divided according to the ecological levels of the developmental-ecological model described above, especially relating to the macrosystem are not included as they are likely to vary significantly between societies and cultures.
Risk and protective factors can be used to develop both universal and targeted approaches to reducing child maltreatment. Universal approaches seek to reduce risk factors and promote protective factors in all families. This could include ensuring that all parents are provided with accessible information about parenting and child development. Identifying social and environmental risk factors such as low socio-economic status or neighbourhood disadvantage can inform systemic responses that seek to address the causes of disadvantage (Bromfield, Lamont, Parker, & Horsfall, 2010).
Identification of risk and protective factors can also be used to develop targeted approaches to reducing child abuse and neglect. Families that display multiple risk factors and minimal protective factors can be identified and provided with additional services and support (Putnam-Hornstein & Needell, 2011; Wu et al., 2004). Strengths-based practice, emphasising the assets and strengths within families, is a common strategy used to build and enhance protective factors and promote quality communication and engagement with families (Bromfield et al., 2012). All children and their families exhibit both risk and protective factors to some extent. The interaction of multiple risk factors in combination with limited protective factors may increase the likelihood of child abuse and neglect. Strong protective factors in families such as supportive social networks and a good parent-child a