26 Ancient Persia
The Neo-Assyrians established the largest empire in Near Eastern history by conquering Mesopotamia, Syria, Canaan, and Egypt. However, as we learned in the previous chapter, their reign was short-lived, as the Babylonians and Medes eventually destroyed the empire and divided the spoils. This marked a transitional period that paved the way for an even more vast empire. The Persian Empire emerged from the eastern region of Mesopotamia, founded by skilled warriors and efficient administrators. The Persian kings wielded immense power, wealth, and authority, ruling over a vast territory that stretched from the Indus River to the Nile. Governors, stationed in conquered regions, served as extensions of the king’s authority, while trade flourished along a network of roads protected by the Persian military. For two centuries, the Persian Empire reigned supreme as the ancient world’s dominant superpower.
Early Persian History
The origins of the Persians are shrouded in mystery, dating back to the arrival of nomadic Indo-European speakers in the Near East around 2000 BCE. These early Persians, also known as Indo-Iranians or Indo-Aryans, were primarily pastoralists, relying on animal husbandry and a migratory lifestyle, with the horse-drawn chariot playing a significant role. It is unclear how they interacted with existing populations in the region, whether they displaced or assimilated with them. Written records from the 9th century BCE reveal that the Neo-Assyrian Empire launched military campaigns against and extracted tribute from the Persians, who inhabited the southern Zagros Mountains and the Persian Gulf region, near the Medes, with whom they shared cultural similarities.
The early Persians are known through the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote that Persia was a vassal of Media in the 7th century BCE but gained independence under Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) in the 6th century BCE. Cyrus, likely a member of the Achaemenid dynasty, reorganized the Persian state and military, creating divisions for cavalry, archers, and infantry. He then defeated the Medes in 550 BCE and integrated their elite into his government, expanding his empire. Between 550 and 539 BCE, Cyrus conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, incorporating Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Judah into his empire. He administered this vast domain through local governors, a strategy to prevent rebellions. After Cyrus’ death in 530 BCE, his son Cambyses II continued his expansion, conquering Egypt in 525 BCE and adopting the role of pharaoh, respecting local traditions to win support.
During the reign of Cambyses II, the Persian Empire reached its zenith, encompassing a vast territory that spanned from the borders of India to the Aral Sea, and from the Aegean coast of Anatolia to the Nile River, with all the lands in between under its control. However, at the pinnacle of his power, a revolt erupted in 522 BCE in support of his brother Bardiya, threatening the empire’s