2 Methods
For tech policy analysis and design in pedagogical settings, we have found it useful to employ methods from value sensitive design. Friedman and Hendry (2019) give a comprehensive review of seventeen methods in value sensitive design, methods that have been used in diverse research, information system design, and engineering projects.
We do not reproduce that review, nor do we present a comprehensive tutorial. Instead, we present simplified introductions to the methods used in the case studies. These methods include:
- Direct and indirect stakeholder analysis
- Value source analysis
- Co-evolution of technology and social structure
- Value scenarios.
Direct and Indirect Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholders are individuals, organizations, institutions, and societies. Stakeholders can also be non-human living things with moral or ethical standing such as salmon, killer whales, rivers, and ecosystems. In some projects, historic buildings or sacred mountain tops might also be considered stakeholders.
When a stakeholder interacts directly with a tool or technology they are referred to as a direct stakeholder. Direct stakeholders are commonly called “users.” In user-centered design, the aim is largely to improve the interaction between user and system, often as defined by usability assessments.
Indirect stakeholders, on the other hand, are not users—they do not use the technology under consideration—but are nevertheless impacted by it. Consideration of the interests of indirect stakeholders often lead to requirements that would otherwise not be identified.
For example, consider a patient’s electronic health record. Suppose a system is designed whereby medical personnel and insurance companies have access to health records but patients do not. In this case, the doctor and insurance company would be direct stakeholders and the patient would be an indirect stakeholder.
Putting aside the important question of whether it is reasonable to not give patients direct access to their health records, note that the patient has a tremendous stake in the system. Errors in the record might lead to diagnostic or treatment errors. Or, a data breach might lead to a patient’s privacy being compromised. In both cases, the possibility of physical or psychological harm is likely. Thus, indirect stakeholders can be as important to the success of a system as direct stakeholders.
| In-class student activity: Conduct a brief direct and indirect stakeholder analysis of an Electronic Health Records system.
Key questions: Who uses the system (direct stakeholders) and who is impacted by it (indirect stakeholders). |
| Direct stakeholders • Doctors(add/readnotes) • Nurses(add/readnotes) • Medicalpersonnel • Insurancecompanies(billpatients or family) • Researchprojects(analyzemedical records for trends) • Governmentregulators(checkfor HIPPA compliance)Indirect stakeholders • Patient(noaccesstomedical records) • Familymembers(impactedby patient’s health)Variation in roles: If a