The Modern Treaty Era
Thus far in our journey we have not specifically considered the situation of Indigenous people living in the city, though many of the issues we discussed – discrimination, the need for investment, the importance of connectivity –are relevant for city-dwellers.
The 2021 Census reported that about 44% of Indigenous people were living in large urban centers – 40% of First Nations, 55% of Métis, and 15% of Inuit[1]. Among cities, Ottawa-Gatineau had the highest number of Inuit.
In 2016 the city with the most residents identifying as Indigenous was Winnipeg (92,801), followed by Edmonton (76,205), Vancouver (61,460) and Toronto (46,315). While Winnipeg had the most self-identified Métis, over 50,000, most people who identify as Métis lived in Ontario.
The greatest concentration of Indigenous people was found in Thunder Bay, where about 13% of the population was Indigenous, followed by Winnipeg at 12%, and Saskatoon at 11%.
The Diaspora:
As described in Lawrence (2004, ch. 11), urban Indigenous communities are [predominantly] made up of people who have left their home communities, either recently or generations ago. Some chose to move in the spirit of adventure and economic opportunity. Others were pushed to the city by enfranchisement, loss of livelihood, or poverty. Deseronto, Ontario is home to many Kanien’kehá:ka who left the reserve because they could not obtain mortgages.
One challenge for Indigenous people living in the city can be disconnection – disconnection from people who share the same cultural background and same lived experience. This means that emotional support and social networks may be lacking, a lack which is made more problematic by any discrimination or exclusion they may be facing, and any inherited trauma they may be dealing with.
Additionally, Lawrence (2004) believes that the urban lifestyle itself, having a distinct separation between home life and work life (at least prior to the Covid-19 pandemic), encourages individualism and the erosion of traditional Indigenous culture.
On the other hand, urban Indigenous communities can provide safe spaces and cultural renewal for people coming to the city from reserves or rural areas. Cities can offer a broader perspective of what it means to be Indigenous than might exist at some reserves, providing examples of the diversity of beliefs, political orientations, careers, and lifestyles of Indigenous people. Pan-Indigenous social and political alliances can be established in cities. Lawrence (2004; Ch. 12) describes these opportunities, noting that urban environments are the only places where Status and non-Status First Nations can work together in the same organizations.
Young Newcomers to the City:
Many Indigenous youth leave remote areas to attend high school in urban centers. This can open up a new, empowering chapter in their lives. But it also exposes them to stresses and risks. They may be hosted by families or schools which lack appropriate cultural understa