14.11 Development and Ageing of the Endocrine System
14.11 Development and Ageing of the Endocrine System
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the embryonic origins of the endocrine system
- Discuss the effects of ageing on the endocrine system
The endocrine system arises from all three embryonic germ layers. The endocrine glands that produce the steroid hormones, such as the gonads and adrenal cortex, arise from the mesoderm. In contrast, endocrine glands that arise from the endoderm and ectoderm produce the amine, peptide and protein hormones. The pituitary gland arises from two distinct areas of the ectoderm: the anterior pituitary gland arises from the oral ectoderm, whereas the posterior pituitary gland arises from the neural ectoderm at the base of the hypothalamus. The pineal gland also arises from the ectoderm. The two structures of the adrenal glands arise from two different germ layers: the adrenal cortex from the mesoderm and the adrenal medulla from ectoderm neural cells. The endoderm gives rise to the thyroid and parathyroid glands, as well as the pancreas and the thymus.
As the body ages, changes occur that affect the endocrine system, sometimes altering the production, secretion, and catabolism of hormones. For example, the structure of the anterior pituitary gland changes as vascularisation decreases and the connective tissue content increases with increasing age. This restructuring affects the gland’s hormone production. For example, the amount of human growth hormone that is produced declines with age, resulting in the reduced muscle mass commonly observed in the elderly.
The adrenal glands also undergo changes as the body ages; as fibrous tissue increases, the production of cortisol and aldosterone decreases. Interestingly, the production and secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline remain normal throughout the ageing process.
A well-known example of the ageing process affecting an endocrine gland is menopause and the decline of ovarian function. With increasing age, the ovaries decrease in both size and weight and become progressively less sensitive to gonadotropins. This gradually causes a decrease in oestrogen and progesterone levels, leading to menopause and the inability to reproduce. Low levels of oestrogens and progesterone are also associated with some disease states, such as osteoporosis, atherosclerosis and hyperlipidaemia, or abnormal blood lipid levels.
Testosterone levels also decline with age, a condition called andropause (or viropause); however, this decline is much less dramatic than the decline of oestrogens in women, and much more gradual, rarely affecting sperm production until very old age. Although this means that males maintain their ability to father children for decades longer than females, the quantity, quality and motility of their sperm is often reduced.
As the body ages, the thyroid gland produces less of the thyroid hormones, causing a gradual decrease in the basal metabolic rate. The lower metabolic rate r