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8 2.2 Paleomagnetic Evidence for Plate Tectonics
Although Alfred Wegener would not live to see it, his theory of plate tectonics would gradually gain acceptance within the scientific community as more evidence began to accumulate. Some of the most important evidence came from the study of paleomagnetism, or changes in Earth’s magnetic field over millions of years.
Earth’s magnetic field is defined by the North and South Poles that align generally with the axis of rotation (Figure 2.2.1). The lines of magnetic force flow into Earth in the Northern Hemisphere and out of Earth in the Southern Hemisphere. Because of the shape of the field lines, the magnetic force trends at different angles to the surface in different locations (red arrows of Figure 2.2.1). At the North and South Poles, the force is vertical. Anywhere on the equator the force is horizontal, and everywhere in between, the magnetic force is at some intermediate angle to the surface.
In its fluid form, the minerals that make up magma are free to move in any direction and take on any orientation. But as the magma cools and solidifies, movement ceases and the mineral orientation and position become fixed. As the mineral magnetite (Fe3O4) crystallizes from magma, it becomes magnetized with an orientation parallel to that of Earth’s magnetic field at that time, similar to the way a compass needle aligns with the magnetic field to point north. This magnetic record in the rock is called remnant magnetism. Rocks like basalt, which cool from a high temperature and commonly have relatively high levels of magnetite, are particularly susceptible to being magnetized in this way, but even sediments and sedimentary rocks, as long as they have small amounts of magnetite, will take on remnant magnetism because the magnetite grains gradually become reoriented following deposition. By studying both the horizontal and vertical components of the remnant magnetism, one can tell not only the direction to magnetic north at the time of the rock’s formation, but also the latitude where the rock formed relative to magnetic north.
In the early 1950s, a group of geologists from Cambridge University, including Keith Runcorn, Edward Irving and several others, started looking at the remnant magnetism of Phanerozoic British and European volcanic rocks, and collecting paleomagnetic data. They found that rocks of different ages sampled from generally the same area showed quite different apparent magnetic pole positions (green line, Figure 2.2.2). They initially assumed that this meant that Earth’s magnetic field had, over time, departed significantly from its present position, which is close to the rotational pole.
The curve defined by the paleomagnetic data was called a polar wandering path because Runcorn and his colleagues initially thought that their data represented actual movement of the magnetic poles (sin